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Bluegill Sunfish |
Green Sunfish |
Black Crappie |
General Information:
Species such as smallmouth and largemouth bass (Micropterus
spp.), crappies (Pomoxis spp.), bluegill, pumpkinseed, and other
sunfish (Lepomis spp.) are part of this family (Camp, Dresser
and McKee 1981). Certain "bass" such as Roanoke bass and rock
bass are sunfish, not true bass (Rohde et al. 1994).
Centrarchids are predatory fish.
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Bluegill Sunfish |
Green Sunfish |
Black Crappie |
Habitat needs:
Type: The white crappie prefers turbid environments whereas the black
crappie is intolerant of turbid and low dissolved oxygen conditions.
Bluegill are warmwater fish and prefer warm or still water types
(Rohde et al. 1994). Green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus) are found
where few other sunfish are found as they are tolerant of
extremes of turbidity, low dissolved oxygen, and restricted flow;
they are often found in pools of intermittent streams.
Temperature: EPA values calculated for juvenile and adult summer survival, and spawning and embryo survival maxima for selected sunfish:
Growth (oC) Maximum weekly (oC)
average
Black crappie 27 23 spawning n/a n/a White crappie 28 n/a spawning 18 23
Bluegill 32 35 spawning 25 34
Largemouth bass 32 34 spawning 21 27
Smallmouth bass 29 n/a spawning 17 n/a
WARMWATER BASS (Micropterus spp.):
Examples of warmwater bass include largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides),
smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), and spotted
bass(Micropterus punctalatus).
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Smallmouth Bass |
Largemouth Bass |
Spotted Bass |
General Information:
The largemouth bass, smallmouth bass,
and spotted bass are important warmwater game fish.
The warmwater bass spawn in the late
spring or early summer and can prosper in a wide variety
of aquatic habitats.
Habitat Needs:
Type: In general, warmwater bass inhabit streams
and the warmer epilimnetic (upper) waters of shallow lakes
and shallow bays of deeper lakes (Baker et al. 1993).
Bass prefer protection from light during all stages of life
(Edwards et al. 1983). Shallow lakes must be 3 to 15 m
deep in places to support overwintering of warmwater bass
(Stuber et al. 1982). Largemouth bass will not spawn
if the pH is less than 5 and eggs will not hatch if
the pH is greater than 9.6 (Camp, Dresser and McKee 1981).
Spotted bass prefer lacustrine environments with deep, rocky
littoral areas, and deep, open water above the thermocline.
Spotted bass are also found in rivers or streams that have a
slight to moderate current. Optimum riverine habitats include
both deep pools and well-define riffles (McMahon et al. 1984).
Smallmouth bass prefer large, clear lakes with an average
depth of > 9 m with rocky shoals and limited vegetative
growth. Smallmouth bass are also found in cool, clear streams
that are greater than 10.5 m wide with a moderate current. A
stream gradient between 0.75 m/km and 4.7 m/km is preferred.
Riverine habitats must alternate between deep pools (> 1.2 m)
and riffles and have abundant shade and cover (Likens 1985,
Edwards et al. 1983).
Largemouth bass prefer wide, slow-moving rivers or pools of
streams with soft bottoms and some aquatic vegetation and
debris to provide cover. Largemouth bass prefer a river or
stream gradient of less than 1 m/km, but can tolerate up to 4
m/km. Largemouth bass also prosper in lakes with an average
depth < 6 m that support benthic vegetation (Stuber et al. 1982).
Substrate: Smallmouth and spotted bass prefer a
firm substrate of boulders, gravel, or pebbles for spawning.
Spawning largemouth bass prefer a substrate composed of benthic
debris, soft silt-free sediment, and emergent and submergent
aquatic vegetation (Baker et al. 1993, Snyder 1990).
Dissolved Oxygen Levels:
Normal activity: > 6 mg/l (USEPA 1987)
Spawning: > 7 mg/l (Davis 1975)
Embryo and larvae: >6.5 mg/l (USEPA 1987)
Temperature: Warmwater bass spawn when the water temperature is between 17 and 19 degrees C. Temperature ranges for warmwater bass species Species, life stage Upper limit(oC ) Optimum Range(oC) Smallmouth bass (Heiskary et al. 1988, Edwards et al. 1983) adult 32 21 - 27 spawning n/a* 12.8 - 21 Spotted bass (McMahon et al. 1984) adult 34 24 spawning n/a* 18 - 21 Largemouth bass (USEPA 1987, Heiskary et al. 1988, Stuber et al. 1982) adult 36 24 - 30 spawning 30 21 *not available COOLWATER BASS (Percicthyidae family): Coolwater bass include striped bass(Morone saxatilis), white bass (Morone chrysops), and yellow bass (Morone mississippiensis). General Information: Native coolwater bass are anadromous species that migrated from the ocean to freshwater streams to spawn. Some are landlocked and now are found in lakes. Some coolwater bass and hybrids have been introduced to temperate lakes and reservoirs. To spawn, most native striped and white bass continue to migrate from estuarine and near coastal habitats to riverine habitats or into tributary streams from lakes and reservoirs (Crance 1984, Hamilton et al. 1984, Pflieger 1975). Habitat Needs: Type: Coolwater bass require a lacustrine or estuarine habitat for foraging, growth and development by larvae, juveniles, and adults. Reproduction occurs in a riverine habitat with stable, high velocity flow (Crance 1984). Coolwater bass can tolerate abrupt changes in temperature and salinity levels (Moyle 1993). White bass in lakes prefer eutrophic conditions. Yellow bass, like white bass, will inhabit quiet pools and backwaters of rivers and streams. Substrate:Ideal spawning conditions include a firm substrate of gravel or pebbles, preferably in high flow areas upstream of estuaries (Moyle 1993). Dissolved Oxygen Levels: Normal activity: > 6 mg/l (USEPA 1987) Spawning: > 7 mg/l (Moyle 1993) Sediment: Coolwater bass are moderately tolerant of silt-laden and turbid water although they will tend to avoid such waters (Pfliger 1975). One study showed that suspended sediment levels of up to 500 mg/l did not decrease hatching success (Crance 1984). Temperature ranges for coolwater bass Species, life stage Upper limit(oC) Optimum Range(oC) Anadromous Striped Bass (rockfish) (USEPA 1987, Hassler 1987, Crance 1984) adult 27 16 - 25 spawning n/a* 17 - 19 White Bass (Hamilton et al. 1984) adult n/a 19 - 28 spawning n/a 15.5 - 16.7 * not available
The salmon family includes trout and whitefishes as well as salmon.
Trout found nationwide include Brook trout (Salmo trutta), Brown trout (Salvelinus fontalis), Cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki), Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), and Lake trout (Salvelinus namayiush).
Other introduced, hybrid trout species may be found on a regional basis, such as the Golden trout, Dolly Varden, or Bull trout.
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Brook Trout |
Rainbow Trout |
Brown Trout |
Lake Trout |
General Information: Spawning seasons for each trout
species are as follows: brown trout, Oct - Nov; rainbow
trout, mid April - late June; brook trout, Sep - Oct; lake
trout, two weeks during Sep - Oct (Newbury et al. 1993).
Rainbow trout have three ecological forms: 1) anadromous
steelhead trout, 2) resident stream rainbow trout, and 3) lake
and reservoir dwelling rainbow trout. The steelhead trout is
the only form associated with marine waters. The steelhead
trout migrates from estuaries and near coastal environments
into freshwater streams to spawn (Raleigh et al. 1984b).
Cutthroat trout, also known as sea-run cutthroat trout and sea
trout is another anadromous trout species, spawning in natal
streams from Northern California to Alaska and migrating
offshore (Pauley et al. 1989).
Habitat Needs:
Type: Trout are found in streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds.
The optimum riverine habitats
include clear, cold, spring-fed water; silt-free
rocky substrate in riffle areas; a 1:1 pool to riffle
ratio with areas of slow, deep water (brown trout
only requires a 50 - 70% pool to 30 - 50% riffle
ratio); stable water flow with moderate current;
well-vegetated, stable stream banks; and abundant
instream cover.
Optimum lacustrine habitats include cold, oligotrophic lakes
and ponds with rocky bottoms and proximity to spawning
streams or presence of spring upwellings in gravelly shoals
(Raleigh 1982, Raleigh et al. 1984a,
Raleigh et al. 1984b, Hickman et al. 1982).
Substrate: Brook, cutthroat, rainbow, and brown
trout require a stream bed of clean, silt-free,
well-aerated pebbles or gravel for spawning.
Although brook trout and brown trout are primarily
stream spawners, they can spawn on gravelly shallows
of well-circulated lakes.
Lake trout are primarily
lake spawners, but can spawn in streams. Lake trout
prefer rubble 2.5 cm in diameter or larger, in water
12 meters deep or less (Baker et al. 1993, Newbury et al. 1993).
Dissolved Oxygen Levels:
EPA criteria for no impairment of salmonid production (USEPA 1987):
Embryo and larval stages 11 mg/l
Other life stages
8 mg/l
Normal activity: > 5 - 6 mg/l dissolved oxygen (Baker et al. 1993)
Spawning season: > 7.0 mg/l (necessary for egg survival)
Rainbow trout are more tolerant of low dissolved oxygen
levels while brook trout are particularly sensitive
to low dissolved oxygen levels (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981).
Turbidity: Sight feeding is restricted above 50
NTU. As a result, salmonid displacement occurs at 50 NTU.
However, very low turbidity is recommended for salmonid
productivity. North Carolina requires that trout waters
not exceed 10 NTU (NC Code 1994).
Idaho's code states that for normal activity, turbidity shall not
exceed background turbidity levels at a comparable
location by 50 NTU instantaneously or 25 NTU for 10
days (Harvey 1989).
Rainbow trout and brook trout are intolerant of high turbidity
and sedimentation (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981). Brown trout replace
brook trout where streams become warmer and more turbid.
Sediment: A low sediment (suspended solids) load is
required during the trout-spawning seasons,
flow is capable of carrying more sediment and will
often have high levels of suspended solids. Any
sediment transported by the water is subject to
deposition as velocity decreases. Deposition of
sediment in spawning areas can prevent reproduction.
Trout eggs require a well-oxygenated environment
during the embryonic stage. Eggs are laid in
permeable gravel beds with many open spaces that allow
continuous water flow to bathe the eggs with cool,
oxygenated water. When sediment is deposited, the
open spaces can become clogged and the circulation of
lack of oxygen and may be poisoned by their own
metabolic waste (McCabe et al. 1985).
The degree to which gravel-sized and larger particles
are surrounded, enclosed, or covered by sand-sized and
smaller particles is known as the percent embeddedness
(Simonson et al. 1994). Experiments have shown that
embedded levels of 50 to 60% cause complete departure of salmonid fry.
Changes in benthic macroinvertebrate fauna occurs at
67% embeddedness. To ensure trout-rearing habitats
are unaffected, levels of percent embeddedness should
not increase above natural levels at any time (Harvey 1989).
The quality of salmonid habitats can be assessed according to
percent embeddedness(McCabe et al. 1985).
The following table outlines the relationship between
percent embeddedness and habitat quality.
Percent embeddedness Habitat quality
< 25% embeddedness Excellent Conditions
25 - 50% embeddedness Good Conditions
50 - 75% embeddedness Fair Conditions
> 75% embeddedness Poor Conditions
Temperature:
Temperature ranges for selected trout species
(USEPA 1987, Newbury et al. 1993, Raleigh 1982, Raleigh et al. 1984a, Raleigh et al. 1984b, Pauley et al. 1989).
Species, life stage Upper limit(oC) Optimum Range(oC)
Brown trout
adult 27 12 - 19
spawning 27 2 - 13
juvenile 27 7 - 19
Rainbow trout includes steelhead
adult 25 12 - 18
spawning n/a* 10 - 15.5
Brook trout
adult 24 11 - 16
spawning n/a 4.5 - 10
Lake trout adult 23.5 4 - 18 spawning n/a 4.5 - 14
Cutthroat trout
adult 22.0 9 - 12
spawning n/a 6 - 17
eggs 10 - 11
juveniles 21 11 - 21 (opt = 15)
* not available
ANADROMOUS SALMON, LANDLOCKED SALMON
Salmon are found in lakes, rivers, and streams connected to the Pacific Ocean and northern Atlantic Ocean, as well as in the Great Lakes and other landlocked bodies where they occur naturally through processes that caused them to become landlocked (Sebago salmon and Kokanee), or through introduction. Salmon species include: Sockeye (Kokanee) (Onchorhynchus nerka), Coho (O. kisutch), Pink (O. gorbuscha), Chum (O. keta), Chinook (O. tshawytscha), and Atlantic Sebago) Salmo salar).
General Information:
Anadromous salmon must migrate from sea water into fresh water
to spawn. A few "landlocked" salmon species, such as the Kokanee,
or landlocked sockeye, and Sebago, or landlocked Atlantic salmon,
have adapted to freshwater lakes and streams and do not require
migration (Mills 1989). Some anadramous species have been
introduced into the Great Lakes and are, therefore essentially
landlocked. Some have been found to have escaped and migrated
to the Atlantic (Mills 1989).
Anadromous salmon have four distinct life stages:
1) Spawning / embryo / alevin -time period ranging from egg deposition
to emergence of fry from egg, 2) Parr - fry and juvenile salmon residing
in rearing stream, 3) Smolt - salmon undergoing parr-smolt transformation
migrate seaward, and 4) Adult - sexually mature salmon migrate from
ocean to natal stream.
Habitat Needs:
Type: Anadromous salmon hatch in freshwater and remain there
for a short time before they move into estuaries and then
into the ocean. The salmon feed primarily in
deep ocean waters or estuarine areas and remain there
until sexually mature, usually between one and six years,
depending on the species (Mills 1989, Glantz 1992).
Lake salmon will either migrate into tributary streams to
spawn or will spawn in gravel and sand along lake shores.
All adult salmon die after spawning.
Substrate: Salmon require a stream bed or lake shore of clean,
silt-free, well-aerated gravel for spawning. Gravel sizes most
favored for spawning appear to be those between 2.5 and 15.3 cm in
diameter. A substrate gradient of < 3% is preferred (Mills 1989).
Dissolved Oxygen Levels:
EPA criteria for no impairment of salmonid production (USEPA 1987):
Embryo and larval stages 11 mg/l
Other life stages
8 mg/l
minima based on ecology
Natural activity
> 6 mg/l (Sedgewick 1982)
Juvenile salmon
> 8 mg/l
Spawning >8 mg/l
Hatcheries (egg protection) 10 - 12 mg/l
Turbidity: Sight feeding is restricted above 50
NTU. As a result, salmonid displacement occurs at 50 NTU.
However, very low turbidity is recommended for salmonid
productivity. North Carolina requires that trout waters
not exceed 10 NTU (NC Code 1994).
Idaho's code states that for normal activity, turbidity shall not
exceed background turbidity levels at a comparable
location by 50 NTU instantaneously or 25 NTU for 10
days (Harvey 1989).
Sediment: A low sediment load is required during the salmon spawning
seasons. A high-velocity stream flow is capable of carrying more
sediment and will often have high levels of suspended solids.
Any sediment transported by the water is subject to deposition
as velocity decreases.
Deposition of sediment on spawning beds can hamper salmon reproduction.
Salmon eggs require a well-oxygenated environment during the embryonic
stage. Eggs are laid in permeable gravel beds with many open spaces
that allow continuous water flow to bathe the eggs with cool,
oxygenated water. When sediment is deposited, the open spaces can
become clogged and the circulation of water may be reduced. Embryos can
suffocate from a lack of oxygen and may be poisoned by their own
metabolic waste (McCabe et al. 1985).
The degree to which gravel-sized and larger particles
are surrounded, enclosed, or covered by sand-sized and
smaller particles is known as the percent embeddedness
(Simonson et al. 1994). Experiments have shown that embedded
levels of 50 to 60% cause complete departure of salmonid fry.
Changes in benthic macroinvertebrate fauna occurs at
67% embeddedness. To ensure salmonid-rearing habitats
are unaffected, levels of percent embeddedness should
not increase above natural levels at any time (Harvey 1989).
The quality of salmonid habitats can be assessed according to
percent embeddedness (McCabe et al. 1985). The following
table outlines the relationship between percent
embeddedness and habitat quality.
Percent embeddedness Habitat quality
< 25% embeddedness Excellent Conditions
25 - 50% embeddedness Good Conditions
50 - 75% embeddedness Fair Conditions
> 75% embeddedness Poor Conditions
Temperature:
Temperature ranges for salmon.
Type of Salmon Upper limit(oC )
Optimum Range(oC)Migrating salmon
(USEPA 1987; Washington State Code 1992; Sedgewick 1982;
Coutant 1977)
Atlantic salmon
migrating adult n/a* n/a
spawning n/a 5.0
egg protection 12.0 6.0
Pacific Salmon
Chum salmon (Pauley et al. 1988)
migrating adult n/a 8.3 - 15.6
juvenile 23.8 12.0 - 14.0
spawning n/a 7.2 - 12.8
egg protection n/a 4.4 - 14.0
Coho salmon (silver salmon) (Hassler 1987)
migrating adult 25.5 4.0 - 14.0
juvenile 25.0 4.4 - 9.4
spawning 25.8 6.0 - 12.0
egg protection n/a 4.4 - 13.3
Pink salmon (Bonar et al. 1989)
migrating adult 25.8 5.6 - 14.6
juvenile n/a n/a
spawning n/a 7.2 - 12.8
egg protection n/a 4.4 - 13.3
Chinook salmon (king salmon) (Groot and Margolis 1991)
spawning 16 n/a
egg protection 16 n/a
Sockeye salmon (Groot and Morgolis 1991, USEPA 1987)
migrating adult 22 5 - 17
juvenile 18 11 -15
spawning 10
n/a
egg protection 13
n/a
Landlocked salmon
Sebago salmon (Snyder 1990)
adult n/a 11.0 - 18.5
spawning n/a 14.5 - 16.0
for kokanee, see Sockeye, above.
* not available
Ocean-Stream Migration: To spawn, most salmon
migrate from the ocean to the stream, river, lake, or pond,
in which they were hatched. The young fry must then migrate
back to the ocean to mature. The presence of hydroelectric plants,
reservoir dams, and pipelines in these streams often
impedes the journey. To ensure successful reproduction,
means must be implemented to allow fish passage.
Most man-made obstructions are equipped with facilities to
assist salmonid migration, such as fish passes, screens,
and trapping/transportation. Fish passes may be a series
of small step-like pools or a sloping shaft along the face
of the dam. Screens are usually placed as guides leading
to the fish passes, and also around turbines to prevent
entrapment. Finally, some facilities trap the migrating
fishes in pools and direct them into transportation tanks.
The fishes are either lifted and released above the
obstruction or transported a few miles upstream and
released (Mills 1989).
Methods of maneuvering fish around obstacles are not always
effective. Fish passes are frequently unsuccessful because the
migrating adults cannot locate the entrance or are not
attracted to the water stream being emitted from the pass. A
similar problem is observed during the downstream migration of
juvenile fish. To promote migration, operators must occasionally modify
water flow and pass type and location. Mortality of smolts is
frequently observed when screens are used around turbines, because the
fish will be held against the screen by high velocity water. Finally, the
trauma experienced during trapping and transportation can have negative impacts
on fish health (Mills 1989)."
The presence of dams can create other unforeseen difficulties. Water flowing through a dam often undergoes a rise in pressure that increases the dissolution of nitrogen gas. When the water is released below the dam, the nitrogen gas diffuses out of the water as the pressure decreases. Salmonids migrating upstream encounter these elevated nitrogen levels and adsorb a proportional amount of nitrogen into their tissue. When the salmon move above the dam, the sudden decrease in water pressure causes the nitrogen in their tissues to come out of solution and accumulate as bubbles under the skin. This disorder is usually fatal (Willers 1981).
Water diversion from one river to another is also potential danger. The fish "homing" instinct is now believed to be associated with the water chemistry of the natal stream. If water from one river is used and then discharged into a different river, the migrating fish may mistakenly swim up the incorrect river (Mills 1989).
Longnose Sucker, White Sucker, Sacramento Sucker
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| Longnose Sucker | White Sucker |
General Information:
There are a number of sucker species and although these are
often thought of as "trash" fish, they actually resemble trout in
behavior and ecology. Longnose and white suckers are the most widely
distributed suckers in the United States. Longnose suckers are most
common in the northern U.S. White suckers are found
throughout the U.S. (Rodger 1991).
Spawning usually occurs in the early spring to early summer,
depending on the geographical location (Rohde et al. 1994).
White suckers usually return to the same stream each
year to spawn (AWWA 1990).
Habitat Needs: Type: Longnose suckers and white suckers inhabit
riverine environments. Suckers prefer clear rivers
and streams with low to moderate gradients. Adult
suckers tend to gather in pools and deep areas of slow
to moderate flow velocity. Optimum riverine habitats
have abundant in-stream cover and well-vegetated
stream banks (Twomey et al. 1983, Edwards 1983). Spawning
usually occurs in riffle areas with velocities ranging from
30 to 59 cm/sec and depths of less than 60 cm (Aadland 1993).
Sucker requirements resemble trout although they may be found in
warm drainages with high turbidity where their food is abundant
(algae, midge larvae and other aquatic invertebrates)
(McGinnis 1984).
Many suckers, like trout, utilize both lakes and streams
during their lifecycles. Juveniles are generally found in streams
while adults inhabit lakes. Longnose and white suckers tend
to congregate in the bottom waters of cold, oligotrophic
(nutrient poor) lakes that are 14m to 40m deep (Rohde et al. 1994).
Optimum habitats have a sharply sloping lake bottoms and have
little littoral (shoreline) area (Edwards 1983).
Substrate: Ideal spawning conditions include a firm
substrate of sand or small gravel, with limited
vegetation (Rohde et al. 1994, Werner et al. 1994)
Dissolved Oxygen Levels:
Normal activity: > 5 - 6 mg/l
Spawning: > 7 mg/l
Sediment: Suckers require sand, silt, and gravel to
cover and protect the eggs after laying. Generally,
burial is accomplished by the turbulence created
during the spawning process (Rohde et al. 1994,
Werner et al. 1994).
Temperature:
Temperature ranges for suckers
Species, life stage
Upper limit(oC) Optimum Range(oC)
Longnose sucker
adult 10 - 15
spawning 10 - 15
White sucker Temperature requirements vary according to geographic location.
EPA values calculated for maximum weekly temperatures for the white sucker:
(oC)
Summer adults/juveniles 28
Spawning 10
Embryo survival 20
Darter species are sensitive to sedimentation and oxygen depletion
(Plafkin et al. 1989).
Walleye, yellow perch, darters: (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981, Pflieger 1975)
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Yellow Perch |
Fantail Darter | Riverweed Darter |
General Information
Walleye are one of the most valuable game species. They are found
in lakes and rivers and migrate to streams to spawn. Young feed
on benthic macroinvertebrates while adults eat other fish and
large aquatic insects.
Yellow perch are found in lakes and rivers. Yellow perch feed on
benthic macroinvertebrates and small fish.
Darters are found in rivers and streams.
Habitat needs:
Type: Walleye are intolerant of excessive turbidity, prospering in
clear, unpolluted waters with a gravel, rock, sand, or hard clay
bottom.
Yellow perch are abundant in nutrient rich waters with high
phytoplankton and macroinvertebrate productivity. They are
tolerant of low oxygen conditions.
Most darters are intolerant of siltation and turbidity and
require highly oxygenated water. A few darter species, such
as the river darter (Percina shumardi) and blackside
(P. maculata), are more tolerant.
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Sculpin |
Great Sculpin |
Habitat needs : (Brown 1971)Type: Freshwater sculpins prefer fast flowing clear waters.
Most are coldwater species found in cold streams and
headwaters, but some species are tolerant of warmer, slow-moving
water. They feed on benthic macroinvertebrates. Sculpin
habitat requirements are similar to those of other darter species,
thus they can be used for biomonitoring water quality in streams
that lack other darters (Plafkin et al. 1989).
Minnows, carp, shiner, chub, dace
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Fathead Minnow |
Golden Shiner |
Common Shiner |
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| Blackside Dace | Redside Dace |
Red Shiner |
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| Common Carp | Lake Chub |
General Information: Cyprinids are found across a variety of habitats
and substrates, including intermittent streams. They tend to be
sensitive to the degradation of pools and streamside vegetation
(Plafkin et al. 1989).
Habitat needs: (Rohde et al. 1994, McGinnis 1984, Camp Dresser and McKee 1981)
Type: Minnows such as Fundulus spp., and Gambusia feed on mosquitos and
can utilize atmospheric oxygen; thus they are tolerant of low
dissolved oxygen levels. Minnows inhabit such a variety of
habitats that generalizations can not be made for the whole family.
The Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and Red shiner
(Notropsis lutrensis) are found in muddy backwaters and intermittent
streams as they tolerate high temperatures, low dissolved
oxygen, and organic pollution and feed on algae and detritus, as
well as invertebrates.
Carp prefer warm slow or still waters with a
muddy substrate and abundant vegetation. They are
favored in degraded conditions where other fish can no longer
live. They themselves cause turbidity through their feeding
behavior and damage the spawning habitat of other fish
species; they may cause a shift in the benthic macroinvertebrate
faunal composition.
Dace spawn in rock and gravel and feed on benthic invertebrates;
they are, as a result, sensitive to sedimentation.
Temperature:
EPA maximum values calculated for growth and survival for selected cyprinids:
Growth (oC) Maximum weekly average (oC) Carp spawning 21 33
Emerald shiner normal activity 30 spawning 24 28
General Information: (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981)
Pike are valuable game species. They are predators of fish
such as yellow perch and suckers, and other aquatic organisms.
Thus they are top carnivores, prone to metal and organic bioaccumulation.
They are used for biomonitoring water resource metal
contamination and for determining community structure health
(Phillips and Rainbow 1994).
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Northern Pike |
Habitat needs:
Type: As pike are sight feeders, they are intolerant of high turbidity.
However, they are tolerant of low dissolved oxygen and can survive
levels lower than carp and bullhead (down to 1 mg/l).
Temperature: EPA maximum values calculated for growth and survival:
Growth (oC) Maximum weekly average (oC)
Northern pike summer activity 28 30 spawning 11 19
Catfish, bullhead, madtom
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Channel Catfish |
Black Bullhead |
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| Brown Madtom | Carolina Madtom |
General information: (Rohde et al. 1994. McGinnis 1984)
Because ictalurids are able to tolerate a broad range of
environmental conditions, the group often serves as important
indicator species for determining whether water quality
is fair or poor. Ictalurids are bottom
feeding warmwater fish, inhabiting eutrophic lakes and
rivers as well as streams. Their barbels (whiskers) allow
feeding at night and in turbid conditions.
Habitat needs:
Type: Adult catfish and madtoms and young bullhead are
less tolerant of siltation and turbidity whereas adult
bullhead are tolerant of siltation, turbidity, and low
dissolved oxygen (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981).
Madtoms are found in riffles and rocky pools of fairly clear
to clear water with permanent flow. Bullhead
are found in backwaters and pools of intermittent streams where
fathead minnow and green sunfish may also be found.
Catfish are found in a variety of habitats.
Temperature: EPA maximum values calculated for growth and survival for channel catfish:
Growth Maximum weekly average
Channel catfish summer activity 32 35 spawning 27 29
Changes in the relative abundance of such species in contrast to low
tolerance and pollution intolerant species can be used
in biomonitoring to distinguish water quality.
Mudminnows and other umbridae prefer muddy streams and
pools with abundant aquatic plants. They can survive
dissolved oxygen levels of less than 1 mg/l (Camp Dresser
and McKee 1981).
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Central Mudminnow |
Olympic Mudminnow |
Aplodinatus grunniens
Drum prefer slow moving, turbid streams and warm lakes
and ponds with mud bottoms (Camp Dresser and McKee 1981).
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| Freshwater Drum |
See above.
See above.
See above.
See above.
Shrimp, Lobsters, Crayfish, Crabs, Clams, Oysters, Mussels
General Information: Shellfishing is an important
industry in most major estuaries. Population declines
in recent years indicate environmental stress. Brown shrimp
make up 1/3 of the shrimp harvest.
Habitat Needs: Substrate: Mussels and oysters require firm substrates for attachment
(Newell et al. 1989, Shaw et al. 1989, Pauley et al. 1989,
Stickney 1979).
Sediment: Sediments cause oysters to stop feeding or
expend excessive amounts of energy in separating mud
and sand from their food.
Dissolved Oxygen Levels: Nutrient enrichment generated algal
blooms often result in low dissolved oxygen
conditions which shellfish can not tolerate.
Normal activity:
> 5 mg/l (Stickney 1979)
Turbidity: Shellfish tend to be intolerant of high
turbidity related to sediments. Turbidity related
to phytoplankton productivity may promote shrimp
productivity since the turbidity protects them from
predators and is indicative of a large source of food
(Larson et al. 1989). However, algal blooms are often
toxic to shellfish larvae, particularly oyster larvae,
and adults that have ingested dinoflagellates are
toxic to humans.
Temperature: High temperatures greater than 24 - 27 C may be lethal
to shellfish.
Optimal Temperatures for Various Shellfish (C)
Bay Mussel/Blue Mussel(M. edulis) 10 - 20 (Shaw et al. 1989, Newell et al. 1989) Pacific Oysters 4 - 24 (Pauley et al. 1989) Brown shrimp larvae 24 (Larson et al. 1989)
Shellfish and pollutants:
Bacteria levels: The median fecal coliform bacteria
concentration should not exceed 14 per 100 ml with not
more than 10 percent of samples exceeding 43 per 100 ml
for the taking of the shellfish (EPA 1986, Mueller et al. 1987).
Total coliform bacteria should not exceed 70 per 100 ml
with not more than 10% of the samples taken during
any 30-day period exceeding 230 per 100 ml (Mueller et al. 1987).
Pesticide Bioaccumulation: The active ingredient of
many pesticides are lipophilic, or hydrophobic,
(lipid-loving, water-hating) compounds that will
readily sorb to sediment and other substrates
(including organisms) in the water. The free
pesticide compounds are removed from the water column
rapidly. As organisms die and sediment settles to the
substrate, the pesticide compounds accumulate.
Because shellfish are closely associated with the
substrate, pesticide compounds tend to be incorporated
into the shellfish tissues. When filter-feeding,
shellfish ingest plankton and sediment, both of which
may be rich in pesticide compounds.
Metal Accumulation: Plankton, the primary
food source of shellfish, may assimilate metals because of high
cell surface area to cell volume ratios. Shellfish
can accumulate the metals from the phytoplankton and
zooplankton into tissue. Because of the ease of metal
transfer up the food chain, shellfish often serve as
useful bioindicators in areas contaminated with heavy
metals.
Competition : The zebra mussel, which was inadvertently introduced
into the water systems of the upper Midwest and has now spread
throughout many of the Great Lakess, can out-compete many of the
native, freshwater mussels and thus poses a threat to their survival.
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NCSU Water Quality Group |
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